A Brief History of Hadrian’s Wall

gives a guide to events before and during Roman control of Britain.

Island Invasion

Britain was invaded in 43AD by Emperor Claudius, Southern and Eastern England was rapidly overrun. Most of Northern England was occupied by the Brigantes tribe, who became allies of Rome, and as a result, there was no Army of occupation.

Invasion of the North

With a change of leadership of the tribe, the situation changed. After the accession of Vespasian in 69AD, Quintus Petillius Cerialis was appointed governor of Britain and the conquest of the Brigantes was begun and the occupation of the North.

Gnaeus Julius Agricola (governor 78-84) was engaged in warfare in Brigantian territory, first as legate under Cerialis, and later as governor, consolidating the new conquest. A fort was built at Carlisle in AD 72 as an ancillary fort. A large fort was built at Corbridge in 79AD half a mile west of the present site.

Invasion of Scotland

These two forts became the supply bases for the invasion of Scotland.. Separate contingents invaded from the west and the east.

It would appear that Agricola’s intension was to conquer the whole island. Forts and roads were built throughout southern Scotland and a chain of forts built at the entrances to the glen in eastern and north eastern Scotland culminating in the battle of Mons Graupius somewhere in North East Scotland, where the Caledonians were heavily defeated in 84AD, after which Agricola was recalled.

A legionary fort was built on the north bank of the River Tay. This and the other north east Scottish forts were dismantled within two years and the prospect of conquering the whole island abandoned. What happened thereafter appears unclear. Troops were withdrawn from Britain about 86AD( including one of the legions ) and there were no troops north of Newsteads (Melrose) by 90AD culminating in the frontier being drawn just south of where the Wall was eventually built along the Solway Tyne corridor by after 100AD.

Stanegate

The Stanegate is a road built about 80AD between Carlisle and Corbridge. It is possible that the road extended west to Washingwells, south of Whickham and a mile and a half south of the Tyne.

This eventually developed into a Lime, a series of forts, which became the frontier about 20 years later and extending west to Kickbride on the coast.

Further details can be found here.

The burning of the fort at Corbridge and certain forts further north may indicate that there may be an attack on this area circa 100/105AD, and it is thought that the unrest continued, with a victory medal issued in 119 AD.

Hadrian Becomes Emperor

TURRETS and MILECASTLE

In AD 117 the Emperor Trajan died. Although he had expanded the empire in other areas, in Britain there had been a period of military withdrawn and consolidation. There were references from that time that the Britons could not be kept under control and that military action had probably been necessary since he had become emperor. Hadrian abandoned some of the new territories and went for consolidation. The borders were strengthened and he kept in close touch with the armies that guarded them, by continued tours of inspection.

Hadrian arrived in Britain in 122AD probably with the sixth legion. The Ninth Legion had most probably been transfer to the Netherlands) A new British Governor was appointed, Nepos who had been governor in Lower Germany. The decision to build the wall was made; Hadrian left Britain before the end of the year never to return. Nepos had the job of beginning the Wall and stayed probably until 126AD. The Wall was planned to be stone 10ft wide from Newcastle to the River Irthing in the west a distance of 45 miles 72km and thereafter a turf rampart 20ft 6m wide. There were to be gates/milecastle every Roman mile (0.92 miles) with 2 turrets between each milecastle.

While the building was still in progress, a decision to move the forts on to the Wall was made, rather than rely on the Stanegate forts 2 miles south of the wall. In addition, the width of the stone wall would be reduced to 8ft from just east of the North Tyne crossing, and the wall would be extended in the east from Newcastle to Wallsend. It is thought that the decision to build the Vallum (the ditch south of the wall) was probably made at this time. Most of the forts on the Stanegate were abandoned once the forts on the wall were commissioned.

Progress continued until the death of Hadrian in 138AD by which time it was largely finished

Second Invasion of Scotland

Hadrian was replaced as emperor by Antoninus Pius, who decided almost immediately to move the frontier from Hadrian’s Wall to the Forth and Clyde isthmus a hundred miles further north. The military build-up started almost immediately, with elements of the 2^nd legion being transferred to Corbridge, again became the major base for the invasion. Newsteads was reoccupied and other forts built in southern Scotland.

The Antonine Wall was started in 142AD. It consisted of a stone base with tuff ramparts 10ft- 3m high and 15ft- 4.5m wide and was 37 miles long. There were 18 forts on the wall and a number of fortlets built by 2^nd, 6^th and 20^th legions, who twenty years before had built Hadrian’s Wall. Again it seemed to evolve as it was built.

The garrison would have been about 7000 auxiliary soldiers. Some of the lessons from the building of Hadrian’s Wall appear to have been learnt. Some would have been involved in both projects.

Serious incursions occurred in about 155AD, again there is no detail. It would appear that a decision to return the frontier to Hadrian’s Wall was made about 158AD and it was finally abandoned soon after 161AD, when Antoninus Pius died.

Return to Hadrian’s Wall

Major rebuilding work was undertaken on the original wall in the 160’s. War broke out again in 170’s and a general and his army were massacred. The defences were re-enforced by 5500 Sarmatians from the Danube, but in spite of these reinforcements, the forts at Halton Chesters and Rudchester along with Corbridge were destroyed. A new governor was dispatched from the emperor and a victory was declared in 184AD.

In 185/7AD Pertinex was sent by the emperor to deal with mutinous legions, who tried to induce him to start a full scale revolt by declaring him emperor. He refused and retired from the post. At the end of 192AD the emperor Commodus was assassinated and Pertinex was appointed emperor. Within a year he too had been assassinated. The throne was put up for auction and Julianus became emperor only to be murdered by the palace guide.

Three claimants emerged for the throne all provincial governors, Septimius Serverus, Niger and Clodius Albinus, Governor of Britain.

In the next four years, there was a civil war, in which Severus dealt with Niger , and then Albinus in a battle in Gaul with large casualties on both sides in AD 197. To stand a chance against Severus Albinus must have taken most of the British army to Gaul leaving the Wall undefended.

There appears to have been trouble with the tribes north of the Wall although there are no details. Severus sent Lipus as British Governor, who had bribed the local tribes as Severus was involved in defending the eastern empire. Lipus and his successors spent almost ten years restabilising the Wall defences including the Pennine forts. The work was so extensive that for centuries future generations believed that Serverus built the Wall.

Third Invasion of Scotland and Severus

Severus and his family came to Britain in 208AD and established themselves at York. The purpose was the invasion of Scotland. The reason is more difficult to determine.

There had been trouble with Maeatae and Caledonian tribes for the last 40 years, who had to be paid off only 10 years before, there was trouble with the British legions, who were behind the bid for the throne earlier, it is suggested that there had been recent problems, there were his sons Caracalla and Geta, who needed to be removed from Rome for their own good and Severus wanted another imperial victory.

Severus probably did not want to conquer the whole island; this was a punitive expedition to stop further incursions into the area south of the Wall. There is no evidence as to why he did this, but two points are significant in supporting this theory.

First the significant refurbishing of the Wall prior to the invasion and secondly only 2 permanent forts were built during the invasion.

Supply bases were established at Corbridge and South Shields, which had a total of 24 granaries with sufficient food to feed 25,000 men for nearly 6 months. Serverus and his son Calacalla (co-emperor) lead the invasion, while his wife and younger son remained at York administering the province and empire. The invasion consisted of a march up Dere Street and a seaborne invasion travelling up the coast. The map refuses to the Antonine Wall being repaired, which appears now less likely.

In two campaigning seasons, the emperor got as far as Stonehaven. Some of the matching camps shown probably relate to Agricola’s campaign, who marched further north. Peace was agreed in 210AD, whereby the tribes conceded territory and prisoners. This peace was broken within monthly and Caracalla lead the army as Serverus was too ill to go.

Severus died in early 211AD, and Caracalla quickly finished the campaign by bribing the tribes and returned to Rome to establish himself on the throne having his brother and co emperor killed before the end of the year. With the return to the Wall, Vindolanda was completely rebuilt.

Four strongly manned forts were established just north of the Wall, High Rochester, Risinghham, Bewcastle, and Netherby. The manning on the Wall was reduced.

The campaign does not seem a success, but in retrospect it was. The next 80 years were the quietest period of the whole occupation.

Late 2nd Century

For the next hundred years there is almost no information about the Wall, the turrets on the Wall were not manned and the milecastle gates north were narrowed.

Britain, along with Spain, Gaul and German provinces broke away from the Empire from 260 to 274, without any known effect on the Wall.

In 286/287AD it happened again. The Emperor of the West Maximian appointed Carausius with large army and marine forces to counter the increasing raids on the northern coasts of the continent and eastern Britain. It soon appeared that he allowed the raids and then took the plunder as they departed for himself. Maximian ordered his execution and Carausius immediately declared himself Emperor, with the support of a significant military force in Northern France followed by substantially all of the British garrison

Carausius had the Roman Navy and the empire was business defending the Rhine frontier and there may have been fond memories of the last period of independence. An unsuccessful attempt was made to regain control was made 2 years later. In 293AD Constantius the Junior Emperor took the continental possessions, which was followed by Carausius being murdered by Allectus his financial minister, who became “Emperor”.

. Constantius sailed with two fleets in 296, his fleet was delayed by fog, but this assistant avoided Allectus’s fleet and landed first.

Allectus rushed to meet him and was routed, with few Roman Casualties, which indicates that he did not have much support from the Roman Army in Britain.

Constantine

Constantius returned in 305 as Emperor to fight the Picks, (this the first reference to the Picks mainly Maeatae and Caledonian tribes) with his son Constantine, who had been effectively kept as a hostage at Diocletian’s court, but also being trained for the throne. Pottery found at a former Severian fort on the Tay estuary indicate a Roman Presence, it is presumed that the fleet has been used in this short invasion.

Constantius died naturally at York in 306 and his son Constantine was proclaimed Emperor there by the army.

19 milecastles on the Wall bear his names in the period 306/7.It would appear that the Wall had been neglected recently and was being refurbished in the early 4^th century. There is little in the written records, but he did visit Britain on a number of occasions and was responsible for a heavy defeat of the Picts, and assumed the title Britannicus Maximus sometime after 315.

Under Diocletian and Constantine, the administration was totally reorganised. The civil and military administration was divided. The local governors (there were now 4 in Britain) reported to a regional diocese. The military was divided into troops garrisoning the forts and new mobile field armies. Hadrian’s Wall garrisons now reported to the Duc Britanniarum and not the governor at York. The legions ceased to exist as they were and were effectively used as cohorts. Britain was now subject to seaborne raids.

The Cumbrian coastal defences were strengthened because of Irish raids. Elsewhere castles were built along the coast looking more like medieval castles than Roman Forts. These were built to cover Saxon raids. There appears have been treaties with Picks, which remained in force till after 350 AD therefore the Wall was quiet. In spite of the raids it was perhaps the most prosperous time of Roman rule.

The Barbarian Conspiracy

Bewcastle Roman Fort north of the Wall

In 367AD Britain was attacked simultaneously by the Picks, the Irish, the Franks and the Saxons. It is questioned how any Roman commanders and troops were involved in this conspiracy. The Picks came over the Wall and there was no warning. The Wall defences included 4 forts north of the Wall to warn if any significant attack was likely. Patrols would have covered up to 60 miles north of the Wall, these were the scouts (Areani) and it appears that they were bribed. The forts were abandoned after the attack was repelled and the scouts were disbanded.

The focus of the attack was well south of the Wall, where the booty was richer. Britain was overwhelmed and the Count of the Saxon shore was killed and Duc Britanniarum was captured.

On hearing the news the Emperor eventually sent Theodosius (father of the future Emperor) with a small field army to recover the province. He proceeded to drive out the barbarians and attack the Saxons with the navy. He offered pardons to army deserters and brought the army back to an effective force. He repaired the town defences and roughly repaired the northern forts. The Wall garrisons were now much smaller down to 200 men or less from 500 to 1000 in the 2^nd century.

End of Roman Rule

The raids continued, by sea and land, Maximus, a Roman General, was proclaimed Emperor by the army in Britain and matched to the continent. Possibly further reducing the garrison in Britain and became the emperor in the west when the army on the continent joined him, eventually, he was defeated in 388 by Emperor Theodosius, controlling the eastern empire.

It is not easy to determine the state of the army in Britain, there was a shortage of recruits across the Western Empire and this applied to Britain, with resistance from the landed aristocracy to give up their serfs, the north would have less of a problem.

Stilicho, regent to Theodosius’s son Honorius instigated a campaign against the Picts in 400 AD, it is unlikely he came in person, but after the campaign, he may have withdrawn further troops from Britain. Britain struggled on.

The situation in Western Europe became more desperate. Yet again the British elevated another emperor in 407 Constantine 111 and crossed the channel with another army. While Constantine was fighting in on the continent in 409, a further revolt in Britain forced out Constantine’s officials in Britain.

There is an account that states that the British made a request to the Emperor Honorius for military assistance, which is rejected saying they must defend themselves. This is disputed, as the document could have referred to another location. There is no chance that he could have helped as he besieged by Visigoths at the time in Ravenna, the western capital at the time. On the balance of probability, it was Britain, who abandoned Roman.

What about the Wall

BUT what about the Wall? There is evidence that the Wall forts were not abandoned, although reduced in numbers. The garrisons did not march back to Rome; they were born in Britain for the most part and lived on the Wall with their families. It is likely they continued to live in the forts, and what little pay they had got over the last few years stopped altogether. They probably tried to control their immediate surroundings and became formidable warbands, possibly striking south for provisions and booty.

VINDOLANDA-4TH-VILLAGE-IN-THE FORT OCCUPIED TO THE 6TH CENTURY

Is this the end of Hadrian’s Wall?

For more about the conquest of the north click here